____________________________________

Untold Narratives

_______

____________________________________

Untold Narratives

African Americans Who Received Special Education Services and Succeeded Beyond Expectations

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edited by

Shawn Anthony Robinson

Director of Pure and Complete Phonics

Independent Scholar

INFORMATION AGE PUBLISHING, INC.
Charlotte, NC • www.infoagepub.com

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ISBN: 978-1-64113-184-1 (Paperback)

           978-1-64113-185-8 (Hardcover)

           978-1-64113-186-5 (ebook)

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Contents

Foreword: The Narrative Experiences of African Americans With Disabilities: A Call for Critical Reflection

Aaliyah Baker

Introduction: Untold Narratives: African Americans Who Received Special Education Services and Succeeded Beyond Expectations

Shawn Anthony Robinson

Part I

Setting the Stage

1     Historical Policy Analysis of Educational Policies for the Differently Abled in America

Jody A. Fields and Kristie Roberts-Lewis

2     Structural Segregation, Disproportionate Representation, and Disabling Assumptions in Special Education: A Black Educator’s Narrative

Saran Stewart and David Kennedy

Part II

Transformative Framework: Stories from African-American Men

3     Accessing Special Education: The Lived Experience of a Black Male with Learning Disabilities

Amar Abbott

4     A Voice Within: How Private Speech Continues to Propel One Man to Academic Success

Rev. Russell Ewell II

5     Insecurities of Special Education: What It’s Like to Be Black, Male, and Learning Disabled

Ronnie Nelson Sidney, II

Part III

Transformative Framework: Stories from African-American Women

6     It Can Be Done

Danyelle Cerillo

7     Otosclerosis: The Invisible Disease

Aunye Boone

8     Not About the Disability, But the Ability to Succeed

Oluwakemi Elufiede

Part IV

Cultural Capital Classroom Activity

Cultural Capital Classroom Activity

Afterword

Nina F. Weisling

About the Editor

About the Contributors

Foreword

The Narrative Experiences of African Americans With Disabilities

A Call for Critical Reflection

There is nothing wrong with Black students who are fortunate to learn
in an environment in which they feel valued and appreciated and are expected
to do great things academically.

—Kunjufu, 2012, p. vii

Marginalized, ostracized, and low academic achievement are words that have been used to describe what happens when African Americans go to school (Fashola, 2005; Polite & Davis, 1999). Furthermore, there is a widespread lack of knowledge when it comes to understanding the experiences of African Americans with disabilities in schools and society. A structural reformation of schooling practices has been proposed to bring about equity and equality in education, particularly for African Americans (Du Bois, 1994). Over the past several decades, we have seen a rise in important literary works that attempt to describe inequitable experiences in education and challenge the notion that African-American children are inferior. This book is a much needed contribution to that body of literature. The personal narratives presented in this book reflect the challenges directly related to current research concerning the norms, culture, and practices of education as we know it. Moreover, the narratives in this book as told through the voices of African Americans with disabilities reveal the concreteness of experiences juxtapose socially constructed ideals.

One might ask, how can a collection of personal narratives help inform my understanding? Personal narratives can offer many representations of self, create coherence among others, and offer insight into sociocultural patterns in a given set of social processes. Personal narratives can be insightful, about more than just one family or one person’s story. Similarly, life stories can be an insight into cultural practices and norms. Culture, as the common thread and societal make-up of our existence, has been examined, explored, and correlated with ideals of behaviors, attitudes, and norms impacting the schooling experiences of those on the margins of power.

Social trends and changing demographics impact school culture and the politics of education. Select groups of students (particularly African Americans with disabilities) are at a disadvantage when schools enforce and maintain practices that do not consider the tangible stories and lived experiences of all students. As such Untold Narratives is for everyone. Teachers and school personnel, government officials, board of directors, and anyone else identified as key stakeholders in education must be made aware of the severe ramifications of how marginalization and discrimination plague the human race.

Access to education in U.S. schools mirrors the beliefs embedded within a democratic system of government. In our democracy, it is propitious that education laws are implemented to create a better world by fully endorsing the charters of freedom, including the Declaration of Independence, which explicitly states, “All men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.” The Individuals with Disabilities Act, for example, was created to ensure equity and inclusive practices in the education and assistance of individuals with disabilities. Therefore, it is our duty to sustain and uphold these charters and work to eradicate racial prejudices altogether. These stories provide tangible examples of successful outcomes that have disrupted the status quo.

Many African Americans succeed despite persisting injustices. Nevertheless, a negative image is often painted that blames African-American students for their low achievement. This book advances the idea that African Americans with disabilities can and do succeed when afforded the opportunity to

rely upon culturally mediated best practices;

engage in critical dialogue around transformative frameworks as presented in such chapters as “Accessing Special Education: the Lived Experience of a Black Male with Learning Disabilities” and “Insecurities of Special Education: What It’s Like to Be Black, Male, and Learning Disabled”; and

reflect on the promises of reflective assessment of figured worlds as in such chapters as “It Can Be Done” and “Otosclerosis: The Invisible Disease.”

This book moves us in the direction of a call to action that is synonymous with achieving equity in education. The personal narratives presented allow a reader the opportunity to assign meaning to the socially constructed categories of difference marked by ability as it intersects with race, class, and gender (Connor, 2006; Gillborn, 2015). African Americans with disabilities are confronted with a myriad of challenges stemming from racist and hegemonic policies and practices predating this era. However, in the present day we must encourage that stories like these be told in order to illustrate the struggles many Americans still face. We must understand the potential threat to all people if these stories remain untold.

—Aaliyah Baker

References

Connor, D. J. (2006). Michael’s story: “I get into so much trouble just by walking”: Narrative knowing and life at the intersections of learning disability, race, and class. Equity & Excellence in Education, 39, 154–165.

DuBois, W. E. B. (1994). The souls of black folk. Mineola, NY: Dover.

Fashola, O. (2005). Developing the talents of African American male students during nonschool hours. In O. Fashola (Ed.), Educating African American males: Voices from the field (pp. 19–50). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Gillborn, D. (2015). Intersectionality, critical race theory, and the primacy of racism: Race, class, gender, and disability in education. Qualitative Inquiry, 21(3), 277–287.

Kunjufu, J. (2012). There is nothing wrong with black students. Chicago, IL: African American Images.

Polite, V., & Davis, J. E. (1999). African American males in school and society: Practices and policies for effective education. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Introduction

Untold Narratives

African Americans Who Received Special Education Services and Succeeded Beyond Expectations

Shawn Anthony Robinson

Guest Editor

Acknowledgments

This edited book would not have been possible without having a strong faith in God, staying encouraged, and understanding the true purpose of how this edited book may not only give students and parents hope, but also help change students’ self-perceptions and belief in reaching their full academic abilities.

I am grateful to all the authors with whom I have had the pleasure to work with, and I appreciate their patience. I am especially indebted to the following colleagues for supporting this project and providing editorial assistance: Aaliyah Baker, PhD, assistant professor in the College of Education and Leadership, and Nina Weisling, PhD, assistant professor, language and literacy at Cardinal Stritch University; John Pruitt, PhD, associate professor of English at the University of Wisconsin-Rock County; and Richard C. McGregory, Jr., PhD, Director of the Center for Study of Black Students at the Office of National Black Student Union and Executive Director of Strategic Communications and Academic Achievement of Robbinsdale Area Schools.

Nobody has been more important to me in the pursuit of this project than the members of my family. I would like to thank my wife, Inshirah, whose love and guidance are with me in whatever I pursue; my two sons, Jeremiah and Ezekiel, who will one day understand the importance of this book; and my mom, Michelle Myers. My family provided unending inspiration and are the ultimate role models. I also want to thank all my friends and colleagues who continuously uplifted me during this project.

Dedication

This edited book is dedicated to all those African-American (AA) or Black students defined by specific labels—learning disability (LD), blindness/visual impairment, cognitive development, speech or language impairment, and hearing impairment—both in and out of special education, who have been devalued and neglected, and had their learning framed by a deficit perspective. To the students who feel hopeless, I too felt there was no way out, but I stayed focused, encouraged, and dismissed those who told me what I could not do as an AA male in special education because of my learning disability. I want you to always believe in yourself and write your own story of triumph like these authors and I have. More importantly, find your purpose in life and pave it forward. I would also like to dedicate this book to the late Dr. Robert T. Nash, and all my Special education teachers who saw potential in me.

Voiceless No More: Let the World Know

I start this edited book with a poem titled “Let the World Know” because, as the authors expressed in their personal narratives, at one point someone discounted and treated them differently, and/or prevented them from achieving academically at high levels (Robinson, 2016a). The poem reflects a story of my navigating the special education system, feeling inferior, and having experiencing some teachers discounting my ability to succeed (Robinson, 2016b; 2017b).

The negative perception that portrays Black males with dyslexia is a deception;

An overreaction by teachers that leads to criminalization and legal action, instead of teaching fractions;

Housed in special education with many days of frustrations;

Feeling rejected from the many years of being educationally neglected;

Curriculum that isn’t particular to meeting their learning styles, which is concerning;

This limits their chances to advance academically, and they maybe experimenting on another level chemically;

They are discounted from being college-bound, but have the potential to turn it around;

The ones in special education that get an opportunity to shine, can redefine the stereotypes that have kept them behind;

Imagine starting college reading nine years behind, not thinking if you can survive, doesn’t give one a peace of mind;

The description is written for you, with low level phonetic transcriptions;

Remedial classes, damages one’s own self-perception and makes one feel less than the masses;

The gatekeepers don’t see you as a high achiever;

Yet, it’s possible to receive special education services, graduate, and narrate your own story;

To refute the mainstream fraudulent notion that assumes that Black males with dyslexia have no room to bloom;

My method of choice is a qualitative approach that allowed me to be creative and innovative;

I share my story of HOPE, so brothers in the trenches know how to cope;

I use my voice as a weapon of choice to inspire Black males with dyslexia to aspire, and to re-energize those that have been marginalized;

Now society will hear my voice (and others) that will give thousands of Black students in special education reasons to rejoice.

Moreover, reflected throughout this anthology are personal narratives that are creative, innovative, and inspiring. These authors’ stories might give current students in special education reasons to rejoice. Therefore, this collection reflects a much-needed area of work for hearing the voices of African-American (AA) or Black students defined by various labels such as learning disability (LD), blindness/visual impairment, cognitive development, speech or language impairment, and hearing impairment. These students have been ignored, discounted, and silenced, and their learning framed from a deficit rather than a strength-based perspective while in the preK–20 educational system.

Further, as Connor (2006) notes, how students have understood their positions within the general education and special education systems has been limited. For me, Connor’s assertion is personal, as I did not truly understand my own position within the special education system until I critically reflected on my past and connected those experiences to relevant literature as a student in a PhD program (Adams, 1990; Banks & Hughes, 2013; Renzulli, 2012). First, after searching through numerous academic databases, I continuously found the literature written from a western philosophy that excluded the authentic voices of AA students with a LD who had successfully navigated the special education system (Robinson, 2013). Second, this resulted in my dissertation chair encouraging me to compose an autoethnographic account that described my journey navigating the academic system through three perspectives: giftedness, race, and dyslexia (Robinson, 2017c). Last, this opportunity allowed me to challenge the status quo by writing my own narrative to counter the predisposition that society has about AA students with various labels in special education and after (Robinson, 2016c).

Thus, as I began this book project, I thought it needed to have at least 12 chapters by writers within only the traditional educational settings. However, after reflecting it became apparent that the quantity did not matter. What mattered were the different voices. I could be different, reach out to people not included in academic circles, and take a risk with this project as I wanted to provide a platform for others to write their own narratives (Robinson, 2017a). Further, what mattered to me was the quality of voices sharing their stories in ways that could reach current students in the special education system and their parents who felt hopeless or excluded (Robinson, 2016d). In fact, one author of this edited book shared an appreciation by stating:

I heard your heart when we first talked about the project and understood that this was to be a practical tool to offer support and hope for those who follow. If I would have had something like this when I was matriculating and negotiating the school system life might have been very different. Thank you again for your tenacity and vision.

As I reflected on this comment, I became highly aggravated by how AA students continue to face educational obstacles despite the historical 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision that aimed to change policy and practice and ensure an equal education for AA students, especially those with disabilities. The 1954 ruling caused school districts to reverse their policies of racial segregation, which violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment to the United States Constitution (Albrecht, Skiba, Losen, Chung, & Middelberg, 2011; Hardman & Dawson, 2008). In other words, the Brown decision found that AA students were not receiving an education equal to that of their White peers. To help alleviate this inequality, the United States government passed the Title I Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), which ensured that students had access to a fair and equal opportunity to receive a high-quality education allowing them to meet at least proficiency on state academic achievement standards and assessments (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2005).

Yet, in the 21st century, we are still advocating for academic equality for AA students.

Therefore, I hope this book may help teachers across a wide array of academic disciplines who are interested in meeting the academic and social needs of current AA students within the preK–20 educational system. While this book will emphasize successful narratives, it will also provide counternarratives to demystify the myth that AA students defined by specific labels cannot succeed or obtain terminal degrees (Robinson, 2016c).

Part I: Setting the Stage

This book begins with what we know about the advancement of school policies and their impact on educating individuals with disabilities in the United States. However, even with these governmental policies established to protect and provide equal opportunities for all students, the reality for AA students is structural segregation, disproportionate representation, and lower academic standards. Furthermore, exploring these educational policies through the lens of critical race theory offers educators a chance to assess how race, law, and power indeed affect the academic advancement of these students within society and the system.

To start with a specific emphasis on special education in Chapter 1, “Historical Policy Analysis of Education Policies for Differently Abled in America,” Fields and Roberts-Lewis discuss educational policies within the United States school system that have created access, services, and provisions for one group within the preK–20 pipeline, while marginalizing and creating barriers for others, primarily minorities. Overall, their chapter provides a historical review of educational policies impacting the education of students with disabilities, and the implications of these policies toward accessing a free and appropriate public education.

Furthermore, in the second chapter, “Structural Segregation, Disproportionate Representation and Disabling Assumptions in Special Education: A Black Educator’s Narrative,” Stewart and Kennedy analyze how racism has been used as a tool to segregate racially minoritized students in special education. Their examination reviews how school practices and policies within the contexts of the United States educational system continue to marginalize and produce barriers for minorities, which is similar to the assertion that Fields and Roberts-Lewis make in Chapter 1. Thus, critical race theory provided Stewart and Kennedy with the opportunity to use reflections and observations of an educator in a midwestern public school district who named and rejected the inequities forced upon racially minoritized students in special education.

The authors’ chapter looks overall at the structural segregation, disproportionate representation, and teachers’ disabling assumptions projected in special education classrooms. Further, they assert that more research is necessary to yield effective implications that will reduce the number of racially minoritized students in special education, and equitably matriculate them into mainstream classrooms.

Part II: Transformative Framework:
Stories from African-American Men

Creswell and PlanoClark (2011) claim that the intent of a transformative framework is to “lift up the voices of participants and develop a call for action using data sources that can challenge injustices and provide evidence that is acceptable to stakeholders” (2011, p. 151). Students may become transformed and find their voices after completely understanding why literacy is necessary. The International Literacy Association (2017) defines literacy as:

The ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, compute, and communicate using visual, audible, and digital materials across disciplines and in any context. The ability to read, write, and communicate connects people to one another and empowers them to achieve things they never thought possible. Communication and connection are the basis of who we are and how we live together and interact with the world.

What follows are narratives of authors who write from a transformative framework, each seeking to empower students in special education to realize that they can achieve what they never thought conceivable. Moreover, from a literacy perspective, the authors in this edited book who are now living with disabilities express how their interactions with the world influenced their identities and how they became academically successful.

As mentioned previously, Connor’s (2006) analysis is critical when examining schooling practices and policies for AA students with disabilities, which authors Fields and Roberts-Lewis plus Stewart and Kennedy discuss in Part I. Mainly, how African Americans understand their position in the special education system is strikingly vague from traditional scholarship. Therefore, the three chapters of Part II counter the absence of the authentic voices of AA males with disabilities.

Abbott’s story in Chapter 3, “Accessing Special Education: The Lived Experience of a Black Male with Learning Disabilities,” navigates the challenges of his education. By sharing his lived experience with both physical and learning disabilities, he provides a counternarrative to the traditional narrative of why AA males in special education are often deemed “uneducable” by informing and empowering both students with disabilities and those who teach them.

Similarly, in Chapter 4, “A Voice Within: How Private Speech Continues to Propel One Man to Academic Success,” Ewell reflects on the low expectations teachers had about his abilities. Moreover, he explains how their unconstructive philosophical beliefs toward his capability propelled him forward. At a young age he heard that “blind students could not succeed in integrated classrooms,” and his parents were told that “they shouldn’t dream of seeing their son graduate from high school with a diploma.” But like other authors, he succeeded far beyond the early prognosis of educators, pediatricians, and physicians, and refused to be influenced by his experiences or others low expectations.

Chapter 5 draws similarities to Abbott and Ewell’s stories; Sidney, like so many AA males with specific learning disabilities throughout their preK–20 schooling, faced various academic and social barriers (Robinson, Ford, Ellis, & Hartlep, 2016). His story “Insecurities of Special Education: What it’s Like to be Black, Male, and Learning Disabled” stands out because we seldom hear the stories of these students who at one point were victimized by a system and eventually, through a combination of personal strength and interpersonal relationships, overcame the odds stacked against them. Sidney revisits his experiences being served by a special education program in a small district where teachers had a deficit perspective regarding his capabilities. Despite his obstacles, Sidney persevered through developing relationships and absolute resolve. Therefore, throughout the chapter he provides recommendations for educators and other advocates interested in developing positive outcomes for AA males with LD in similar circumstances.

Part II: Transformative Framework:
Stories from African-American WoMen

The next three chapters are personal narratives of AA women with specific disabilities. Peterson (1997) explains that, “Given the dearth of research on the experiences of [African-American or] Black disabled women, there has subsequently been little in the way of formal theorizing on how gender and disability intersect with race” (p. 121). Peterson’s study has implications because stories of Black women with “disabilities” are virtually absent. Also, Vernon (1999) asserts that “the intersection of race, gender and class in the experience of Black women has long been a debated issue” (p. 386).

To bring these narratives to the forefront, Cerillo describes her journey in Chapter 6, “It Can Be Done,” as a student not only receiving special education services for her blindness, but also turning a “disability” into an ability. Cerillo’s journey is one of hope and inspiration as students within the preK–20 academic system could benefit from learning about the strategies and services she utilized to become academically independent and successful. Moreover, based on her journey, she advocates for academic justice and serves as a living example that teachers can’t limit students’ abilities based on their physical limitations. Instead, she encourages teachers to help students tap into their giftedness in areas such as general intellectual ability, specific academic ability, leadership, and psychomotor learning (National Society for the Gifted & Talented, 2017).

In Chapter 7, “Otosclerosis: The Invisible Disability,” Boone describes her academic experience without the ability to hear. Boone did not receive special education services, but her journey of hope, pride, and self-advocacy is one that many students enrolled in the preK–12 special education system can benefit from reading. She explains how (a) the severity of her “disability” and (b) “stigmas” of having a hearing loss could be perceived as a mental challenge or helplessness. However, Boone’s story does highlight the struggles of an African American women with a hearing loss. She was resilient and exhibited many traits of giftedness throughout her journey. Furthermore, her story could provide motivation for current African American girls in special education who share a similar diagnosis. Overall, her chapter debunks the most common myths that hearing loss is a disease that consumes one’s life. Hearing loss doesn’t become an identity; those with hearing loss have the power to take their disability and define it themselves (National Association for Gifted Children, 2017).

In Chapter 8, we end with “Not About the Disability, But the Ability to Succeed,” as Elufiede provides personal educational experiences based on lessons she learned through mentoring and accessibility to resources. Moreover, Elufiede reiterates a common theme throughout the collection, which focuses not only on the reconstruction of special education services, but also on legal and political implications for teaching, learning, rehabilitation, and employment. She, like many other authors, stresses that classroom strategies should focus on meeting students’ learning needs (see Part IV).

References

Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Albrecht, S. F., Skiba, R. J., Losen, D. J., Chung, C. G., & Middelberg, L. (2012). Federal policy on disproportionality in special education: Is it moving us forward? Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 23(1), 14–25.

Banks, J., & Hughes, M. S. (2013). Double consciousness: Postsecondary experiences of African American males with disabilities. Journal of Negro Education, 82(4), 368–381.

Connor, D. J. (2006). Michael’s story: “I get into so much trouble just by walking”: Narrative knowing and life at the intersections of learning disability, race, and class. Equity & Excellence in Education, 39, 154–165.

Creswell, J. W., & Plano-Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Hardman, M. L., & Dawson, S. (2008). The impact of federal public policy on curriculum and instruction for students with disabilities in the general classroom. Preventing School Failure, 52(2), 5–11.

International Literacy Association. (2017). Why literacy. Retrieved from https://www.literacyworldwide.org/why-literacy

Kaufman, M. J., & Kaufman, S. R. (2005). Education law, policy, and practice: Cases and materials. New York, NY: Aspen.

National Association for Gifted Children. (2017). Definitions of giftedness. Retrieved July 11, 2017, from https://www.nagc.org/resources-publications/resources/what-giftedness

National Society for the Gifted & Talented. (2017). Giftedness defined. Retrieved July 11, 2017, from https://www.nsgt.org/giftedness-defined/

Peterson, J. S. (1997). Bright, tough, and resilient—and not in a gifted program. Journal of Secondary Gifted Education, 8(3), 121–136.

Renzulli, J. (2012). Reexamining the role of gifted education and talent development for the 21st century: A four-part theoretical approach. Gifted Child Quarterly, 56, 150–159.

Robinson, S. A. (2013). Educating black males with dyslexia. Interdisciplinary Journal of Teaching and Learning, 3(3), 159–174.

Robinson, S. A. (2015). Navigating the academic systems through three perspectives: A twice exceptional, black male, with dyslexia. An autoethnographic account. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Cardinal Stritch University, Milwaukee, WI.

Robinson, S. A. (2016a). Can’t c me. Review of Disability Studies, 12(4), 1–4.

Robinson, S. A. (2016b). How coaching Special Olympics changed the trajectory of my life. Wisconsin English Journal, 58(2), 166–175.

Robinson, S. A. (2016c). My otherness: Navigating and surviving predominantly White institutions. In D. Y. Ford, M. T. Scott, R. B. Goings, T. T. Wingfield, & M. S. Henfield (Eds.), R.A.C.E. mentoring through social media: Black and hispanic scholars share their journey in the academy (pp. 45–52). Charlotte, NC: Information Age.

Robinson, S. A. (2016d). Introduction. Wisconsin English Journal, 58(2), 76–80. Retrieved from https://wejournal.wordpress.com/2017/10/28/vol-58-no-2
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Robinson, S. A. (2017a). “Me against the world”: Autoethnographic poetry. Disability & Society, 32(5), 748–752.

Robinson, S. A. (2017b). Phoenix rising: An auto-ethnographic account of a gifted black male with dyslexia. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 40(2), 1–7.

Robinson, S. A, Ford, D. Y., Ellis, A. L., & Hartlep, N. D. (2016). Introduction. Journal of African American Males in Education, 7(1), 1–4.

Vernon, A. (1999). The dialectics of multiple identities and the disabled people’s movement. Disability & Society, 14(3), 385–398.

Yosso, T. (2005). Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth. Race Ethnicity and Education, 81, 69–91.